If the Universe is expanding, we can understand why distant galaxies recede from us as they do. But then why aren’t stars, planets and even atoms expanding, too?C. Faucher-Giguère, A. Lidz, and L. Hernquist, Science 319, 5859 (47)
Take a look out at almost any galaxy in the Universe, and you’ll find it’s moving away from us. The farther away it is, the faster it appears to recede. As light travels through the Universe, it gets shifted to longer and redder wavelengths, as though the fabric of space itself is being stretched. At the largest distances, galaxies are being pushed away so rapidly by this expanding Universe that no signals we can possibly send will ever reach them, even at the speed of light.
But even though the fabric of space is expanding throughout the Universe — everywhere and in all directions — we aren’t. Our atoms remain the same size. So do the planets, moons, and stars, as well as the distances separating them. Even the galaxies in our Local Group aren’t expanding away from one another; they’re gravitating towards one another instead. Here’s the key to understanding what is (and isn’t) expanding in our expanding Universe.
The original conception of space, thanks to Newton, as fixed, absolute and unchanging. It was a stage where masses could exist and attract.Amber Stuver, from her blog, Living Ligo
The first thing we have to understand is what our theory of gravity is, and how it differs from how you might think of it intuitively. Most of us think of space the way Newton did: as a fixed, unchanging set of coordinates that you could place your masses down onto. When Newton first conceived of the Universe, he pictured space as a grid. It was an absolute, fixed entity filled with masses that gravitationally attracted one another.
But when Einstein came along, he recognized that this imaginary grid wasn’t fixed, wasn’t absolute and wasn’t at all like Newton had imagined. Instead, this grid was like a fabric, and the fabric itself was curved, distorted and forced to evolve over time by the presence of matter and energy. Moreover, the matter and energy within it determined how this spacetime fabric was curved.
The warping of spacetime, in the General Relativistic picture, by gravitational masses. Rather than a constant, unchanging grid, General Relativity admits a spacetime fabric that can both change over time and whose properties will appear different to observers with different motions and at different locations.LIGO/T. Pyle
But if all you had within your spacetime was a bunch of masses, they would inevitably collapse to form a black hole, imploding the entire Universe. Einstein didn’t like that idea, so he added a “fix” in the form of a cosmological constant. If there existed an extra term — representing an extra form of energy permeating empty space — it could repel all of these masses and hold the Universe static. It would prevent a gravitational collapse. By adding this extra feature, Einstein could make the Universe exist in a near-constant state for all eternity.
But not everyone was so wedded to the idea that the Universe needed to be static. One of the first solutions was by a physicist named Alexander Friedmann. He showed that if you didn’t add this extra cosmological constant, and you had a Universe that was filled with anything energetic — matter, radiation, dust, fluid, etc. — there were two classes of solutions: one for a contracting Universe and one for an expanding Universe.
The ‘raisin bread’ model of the expanding Universe, where relative distances increase as the space (dough) expands. The farther away any two raisin are from one another, the greater the observed redshift will be by the time this light is received.NASA / WMAP Science Team
The mathematics tells you about the possible solutions, but you need to look to the physical Universe to find which one of these describes us. That came in the 1920s, thanks to the work of Edwin Hubble. Hubble was the first to discover that individual stars could be measured in other galaxies, determining their distance.
Nearly concurrent with this was the work of Vesto Slipher. Atoms work the same everywhere in the Universe: they absorb and emit light at certain, specific frequencies which depend on how their electrons are excited or de-excited. When he viewed these distant objects — which we now know to be other galaxies — their atomic signatures were shifted to longer wavelengths than could be explained.
When scientists combined these two observations, an incredible result popped out.
A plot of the apparent expansion rate (y-axis) vs. distance (x-axis) is consistent with a Universe that expanded faster in the past, but is still expanding today. This is a modern version of, extending thousands of times farther than, Hubble’s original work. The various curves represent Universes made out of different constituent components.Ned Wright, based on the latest data from Betoule et al. (2014)
There were only two ways to make sense of this. Either:
- all of relativity was wrong, we were at the center of the Universe, and everything was moving symmetrically away from us, or
- relativity was right, Friedmann was right, and the farther away a galaxy was from us, on average, the faster it appeared to recede from our perspective.
With one fell swoop, the expanding Universe went from being an idea to being the leading idea describing our Universe. The way the expansion works is a little counterintuitive. It’s as though the fabric of space itself is getting stretched over time, and all the objects within that space are being dragged apart from one another.
The farther away an object is from another, the more “stretching” occurs, and so the faster they appear to recede from each other. If all you had was a Universe filled uniformly and evenly with matter, that matter would simply get less dense and would see everything expand away from everything else as time went on.
The cold fluctuations (shown in blue) in the CMB are not inherently colder, but rather represent regions where there is a greater gravitational pull due to a greater density of matter, while the hot spots (in red) are only hotter because the radiation in that region lives in a shallower gravitational well. Over time, the overdense regions will be much more likely to grow into stars, galaxies and clusters, while the underdense regions will be less likely to do so.E.M. HUFF, THE SDSS-III TEAM AND THE SOUTH POLE TELESCOPE TEAM; GRAPHIC BY ZOSIA ROSTOMIAN
But the Universe isn’t perfectly even and uniform. It has overdense regions, like planets, stars, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. It has underdense regions, like great cosmic voids where there are virtually no massive objects present at all.
The reason for this is that there are other physical phenomena at play besides the Universe’s expansion. On small scales, like the scales of living creatures and below, the electromagnetic and nuclear forces dominate. On larger scales, like those of planets, solar systems and galaxies, gravitational forces dominate. The big competition occurs on the largest scales of all — on the scale of the entire Universe — between the Universe’s expansion and the gravitational attraction of all the matter and energy present within it.
On the largest scales, the Universe expands and galaxies recede from each other. But on smaller scales, gravitation overcomes the expansion, leading to the formation of stars, galaxies and clusters of galaxies.NASA, ESA, and A. Feild (STScI)
On the largest scales of all, the expansion wins. The most distant galaxies are expanding away so quickly that no signals we send out, even at the speed of light, will ever reach them.
The superclusters of the Universe — these long, filamentary structures populated with galaxies and stretching for over a billion light years — are being stretched and pulled apart by the Universe’s expansion. In the relatively short term, over the next few billion years, they will cease to exist. Even the Milky Way’s nearest large galaxy cluster, the Virgo cluster, at just 50 million light years away, will never pull us into it. Despite a gravitational pull that’s more than a thousand times as powerful as our own, the expansion of the Universe will drive all of this apart.
A large collection of many thousands of galaxies makes up our nearby neighborhood within 100,000,000 light years. The Virgo cluster itself will remain bound together, but the Milky Way will continue to expand away from it as time goes on.Wikimedia Commons user Andrew Z. Colvin
But there are also smaller scales where the expansion has been overcome, at least locally. It’s a lot easier to defeat the expansion of the Universe over smaller distance scales, as the gravitational force has more time to grow overdense regions on smaller scales than on larger ones.
Nearby, the Virgo cluster itself will remain gravitationally bound. The Milky Way and all the local group galaxies will stay bound together, eventually merging together under their own gravity. Earth will revolve around the Sun at the same orbital distance, Earth itself will remain the same size, and the atoms making up everything on it will not expand.
Why? Because the expansion of the Universe only has any effect where another force — whether gravitational, electromagnetic or nuclear — hasn’t yet overcome it. If some force can successfully hold an object together, even the expanding Universe won’t affect a change.
TRAPPIST-1 system compared to planets of the solar system and the moons of Jupiter. The orbits of everything shown here are unchanging with the expansion of the Universe, due to the binding force of gravity overcoming any effects of that expansion.NASA / JPL-Caltech
The reason for this is subtle, and is related to the fact that the expansion itself isn’t a force, but rather a rate. Space is really still expanding on all scales, but the expansion only affects things cumulatively. There’s a certain speed that space will expand at between any two points, but you have to compare that speed to the escape velocity between those two objects, which is a measure of how tightly or loosely they’re bound together.
If there’s a force binding those objects together that’s greater than the background expansion speed, there will be no increase in the distance between them. If there’s no increase in distance, there’s no effective expansion. At every instant, it’s more than counteracted, and so it never gets the additive effect that shows up between the unbound objects. As a result, stable, bound objects can survive unchanged for an eternity in the expanding Universe.
Whether bound by gravity, electromagnetism or any other force, the sizes of stable, held-together objects will not change even as the Universe expands. If you can overcome the cosmic expansion, you’ll stay bound forever.NASA, of Earth and Mars to scale
As long as the Universe has the properties we measure it to have, this will remain the case forever. Dark energy may exist and cause the distant galaxies to accelerate away from us, but the effect of the expansion across a fixed distance will never increase. Only in the case of a cosmic “Big Rip” — which the evidence points away from, not towards — will this conclusion change.
The fabric of space itself may still be expanding everywhere, but it doesn’t have a measurable effect on every object. If some force binds you together strongly enough, the expanding Universe will have no effect on you. It’s only on the largest scales of all, where all the binding forces between objects are too weak to defeat the speedy Hubble rate, that expansion occurs at all. As physicist Richard Price once put it, “Your waistline may be spreading, but you can’t blame it on the expansion of the universe.”
” readability=”193.212382644″>
< div _ ngcontent-c14 =" "innerhtml ="
(***** )
Have a look out at nearly any galaxy in deep space, and you’ll discover it’s moving far from us. The further away it is, the quicker it appears to decline. As light journeys through deep space, it gets moved to longer and redder wavelengths, as though the material of area itself is being extended. At the biggest ranges, galaxies are being pressed away so quickly by this broadening Universe that no signals we can perhaps send out will ever reach them, even at the speed of light.
However although the material of area is broadening throughout deep space — all over and in all instructions — we aren’t. Our atoms stay the exact same size. So do the worlds, moons, and stars, in addition to the ranges separating them. Even the galaxies in our Resident Group aren’t broadening far from one another; they’re gravitating towards one another rather. Here’s the crucial to comprehending what is (and isn’t) broadening in our broadening Universe.
The initial conception of area, thanks to Newton, as repaired, outright and changeless. It was a phase where masses might exist and bring in. Amber Stuver, from her blog site, Living Ligo
The very first thing we need to comprehend is what our theory of gravity is, and how it varies from how you may think about it intuitively. The majority of us think about area the method Newton did: as a repaired, changeless set of collaborates that you might put your masses down onto. When Newton initially envisaged deep space, he envisioned area as a grid. It was an outright, set entity filled with masses that gravitationally drew in one another.
However when Einstein occurred, he acknowledged that this fictional grid wasn’t repaired, wasn’t outright and wasn’t at all like Newton had actually pictured. Rather, this grid resembled a material, and the material itself was curved, distorted and required to progress gradually by the existence of matter and energy. Furthermore, the matter and energy within it figured out how this spacetime material was curved.
)
The warping of spacetime, in the General Relativistic image, by gravitational masses. Instead of a consistent, changeless grid, General Relativity confesses a spacetime material that can both modification gradually and whose residential or commercial properties will appear various to observers with various movements and at various places. LIGO/T. Pyle
However if all you had within your spacetime was a lot of masses, they would undoubtedly collapse to form a great void, imploding the whole Universe. Einstein didn’t like that concept, so he included a “repair” in the type of a cosmological constant. If there existed an additional term — representing an additional type of energy penetrating void — it might fend off all of these masses and hold deep space fixed. It would avoid a gravitational collapse. By including this additional function, Einstein might make deep space exist in a near-constant state for all eternity.
However not everybody was so wedded to the concept that deep space required to be fixed. Among the very first services was by a physicist called Alexander Friedmann. He revealed that if you didn’t include this additional cosmological consistent, and you had a Universe that was filled with anything energetic — matter, radiation, dust, fluid, and so on — there were 2 classes of services: one for a contracting Universe and one for a broadening Universe.
The’ raisin bread’ design of
the broadening Universe, where relative ranges increase as the area (dough )broadens. The further away any 2 raisin are from one another, the higher the observed redshift will be by the time this light is gotten. NASA/ WMAP Science Group (********** )
The
mathematics informs you about the possible services, however you require to aim to the physical Universe to discover which among these explains us. That was available in the1920 s, thanks to the work of Edwin Hubble. Hubble was the very first to find that specific stars might be determined in other galaxies, identifying their range.
Almost concurrent with this was
the work of Vesto Slipher. Atoms work the exact same all over in deep space: they soak up and give off light at specific, particular frequencies which depend upon how their electrons are ecstatic or de-excited. When he saw these far-off things– which we now understand to be other galaxies– their atomic signatures were moved to longer wavelengths than might be discussed.
When researchers integrated these 2 observations, an unbelievable outcome popped out.(*********** )
A plot of the evident growth rate( y-axis) vs. range( x-axis) is
constant with a Universe that broadened faster in the past, however is still broadening today. This is a contemporary variation of, extending countless times further than, Hubble’s initial work. The different curves represent Universes constructed out of various constituent elements.(********* )Ned Wright, based upon the current information from Betoule et al.(2014)
There were just 2 methods to understand this.
Either:
- all of relativity was incorrect, we were at the center of deep space, and whatever was moving symmetrically far from us, or (************************ )(*********************** )relativity was right, Friedmann was right, and the further away a galaxy was from us, typically, the quicker it appeared to decline from our point of view.
(************ )With one fell swoop, the broadening Universe went from being a concept to being
the leading concept explaining our Universe. The method the growth works is a little counterproductive. It’s as though the material of area itself is getting extended gradually, and all the things within that area are being dragged apart from one another.
(************ )The further away an item is from another, the more” extending” happens, therefore the quicker they appear
to decline from each other. If all you had was a Universe filled consistently and uniformly with matter, that matter would just get less thick and would see whatever broaden far from whatever else as time went on. (*********** )(************************** )
The
cold changes( displayed in blue)
in the CMB are not naturally cooler, however rather represent areas where there is a higher gravitational pull due to a higher density of matter, while the locations( in red) are just hotter since the radiation because area resides in a shallower gravitational well. Gradually, the overdense areas will be far more most likely to turn into stars, galaxies and clusters, while the underdense areas will be less most likely to do so. E.M. HUFF, THE SDSS-III GROUP AND THE SOUTH POLE TELESCOPE GROUP; GRAPHIC BY ZOSIA ROSTOMIAN(********** )
(************ )However deep space isn’t completely even and uniform. It has overdense areas, like worlds, stars, galaxies and clusters of galaxies. It has underdense areas, like terrific cosmic spaces where there are essentially no huge things present at all.
The factor for this is that there are other physical phenomena at play besides deep space’s growth. On little scales, like the scales of living animals and listed below, the electro-magnetic and nuclear forces control. On bigger scales
, like those of worlds, planetary systems and galaxies, gravitational forces control. The huge competitors happens on the biggest scales of all– on the scale of the whole Universe– in between deep space’s growth and the gravitational destination of all the matter and energy present within it.(*********** )(**************************** )
(****** )
On the biggest scales, deep space broadens and galaxies decline from each other. However on smaller sized scales, gravitation conquers the growth, causing
the development of stars, galaxies and
clusters of galaxies. NASA, ESA, and A. Feild( STScI)
